Scientists who study the role of global warming on weather say that every heat wave today bears the fingerprints of the climate crisis.

Climate change, driven primarily by humans burning fossil fuels, is worsening global extreme weather in general, but much of that change is related to heat.

Here’s what happens to your body in extreme heat, what you need to watch out for and how to stay safe.

What happens to your body

Normally, your body is used to a certain range of temperatures, usually between 97 to 99 degrees Fahrenheit. When your brain senses a change – either lower or higher than that – it attempts to help your body cool down or heat up, according to Dr. Judith Linden, executive vice chair of the department of emergency medicine at Boston Medical Center and a professor in the emergency medicine department at Boston University’s school of medicine.

“There are a number of different ways in which (the brain) attempts to cool the body down. One way, the most common way we think of, is that you sweat,” Linden said. “The pores open, the body sweats and the sweat evaporates, that cools the body.”

The second way your body cools itself down is by dilating vessels and upping your heart rate, which helps bring heat and blood to the surface of your body and helps releases that excess heat.

When you’re exposed to high temperatures, it becomes harder for your body to try and keep up with cooling itself down. And if your environment is hot and humid, sweat doesn’t evaporate as easily – which pushes your body’s temperature even higher, according to the Mayo Clinic.

“The higher the humidity, the lower temperatures you need for extreme heat,” Linden said.

High body temperatures can lead to damage to the brain and other vital organs, the CDC says. They can also lead to several heat-related illnesses.

Types of heat-related illnesses

Mild-heat related illnesses, including heat cramps, are most common, Linden said. Heat cramps can develop in people who sweat a lot, including during exercising. The excessive sweating uses up all of the body’s salt and moisture and can lead to muscle pains or spasms, usually in the abdomen, arms or legs, according to the CDC.

A heat rash can also develop. That’s a skin irritation caused by too much sweating in hot and humid weather, and is most common in young children, the CDC says. It is usually a red cluster of pimples or blisters, and tends to be in places including the neck, upper chest or in elbow creases.

When your body’s beginning to exceed its ability to cool itself down, you can develop what’s known as heat exhaustion.

“In this case you’re going to see excessive sweating because your body is really going to try and keep up with that extra heat. You’re going to feel light-headed, you may feel dizzy, often people present with nausea, headaches and their skin often looks pale and clammy and their pulse is often fast,” Linden said.

“This is the body’s last attempt to cool itself before it really goes into a point of no return.”

A heat stroke is the most serious heat-related illness, and, if left untreated, can lead to death.

“That’s where your body’s temperature goes above 104 to 105 degrees or so, and this is where your mechanisms are starting to fail,” Linden said.

Warning signs may include extremely high body temperatures, red and dry skin, a rapid pulse, headache, dizziness, nausea or loss of consciousness, according to the CDC.

The hallmark of a heat stroke is confusion and agitation, Linden said.

“So when somebody’s in the heat and they become confused and agitated, that’s heat stroke until proven otherwise and you need to call 911 for that or get help immediately and get the person out of the heat.”

How to stay safe

When your community is facing extreme heat, there are several things you can do to keep yourself and others safe.

First, keep an eye out for symptoms of heat exhaustion or other illnesses. “If somebody starts feeling light-headed, dizzy, nausea or headache, that is the time to act immediately,” Linden said. “That means getting them out of the heat and into a cool environment.”

Putting water on someone who may be experiencing symptoms and giving them fluids can help cool them down. If someone is starting to lose consciousness or has nausea or vomiting, call 911.

“If you see anybody with any type of confusion, that’s an immediate red flag,” Linden added.

When it’s hot outside, try to avoid outdoor activities – especially between the hours of 11 a.m. and 3 p.m., according to Linden. If you have to go outside, wear light-colored clothing, cover your head and drink plenty of fluids.

Don’t wait until you’re thirsty to drink water – as that can be a sign of dehydration. Linden recommends drinking at least one glass of water – or more – an hour.

“If you do start to feel light-headed, dizzy, sweating, fast pulse, get out of the heat immediately,” Linden said.

Try to find air conditioning, or places in your area where you can go to stay cool. Even spending a few hours in a shopping mall or public library can help.

When you’re home, fans can help, but don’t rely on them as your only way of cooling down – while it may feel more comfortable, they won’t help prevent heat-related illness.

“If you’re in a super hot room, if you’ve got a fan, is it helpful? No. I think, if you’ve got a fan, and you’re able to mist yourself … then fans can be helpful,” Linden said. “Fans are not foolproof.”

Finally, make sure you’re checking on your neighbors, parents and friends – especially older individuals who may be living alone or are isolated, Linden said.

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“These are not just little inconveniences. These are very large, very significant masses and they can really impact quality of life,” Dr. Wasson says.

Many people do not experience symptoms and only learn they have fibroids due to a pelvic exam or ultrasound. Others may have symptoms such as heavy, painful, longer or more frequent periods; pain in the pelvis, stomach area or lower back; frequent or difficult urination; constipation; or pain during sex.

“When fibroids become very enlarged, you can actually feel them through the abdominal wall. You can get to the point that your pants do not fit, you have significant abdominal bloating, and the fibroids are pushing on other organs such as the bladder, causing you to have to go to the bathroom all the time, among other symptoms,” Dr. Wasson explains. “You can have constipation because the fibroids are pushing on the bowel and not allowing things to move.”

In the past, women whose fibroids were problematic were commonly told that a hysterectomy— surgery that removes the uterus, also ending the ability to become pregnant — was the only treatment option.

Now, medical advances are minimizing the impact of fibroid removal surgery on patients, often preserving the uterus and fertility, Dr. Wasson says. Other fibroid treatment options include medications that shrink fibroids and procedures that do not require surgery, she adds.

For example, interventional radiologists can perform a uterine fibroid embolization to block the blood supply to fibroids, causing them to shrink. Patients can usually leave the same day. Reducing the size and alleviating symptoms can help significantly, Dr. Wasson explains.

Other minimally invasive procedures include radiofrequency ablation, which uses energy to cause fibroids to die. Minimally invasive surgeries include a robotic or laparoscopic myomectomy, a surgery to remove the fibroids and leave the uterus in place.

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What is ‘healthspan,’ and how is it different from lifespan or longevity?

Patients often say, ‘I want to live to be 100,’ and that is a meaningful goal. But living longer may not be the same as living well.

Healthspan is about how well you live during those years — your ability to function independently, think clearly, and maintain a good quality of life.  It shifts the focus from simply adding years to making sure those years are meaningful.

Why does this distinction matter now?

Doctors have been very successful at extending lifespan, but less effective at preserving the quality of those added years.

What we are seeing in clinical practice is that many people are living longer with chronic disease, reduced mobility, cognitive impairment and increasing dependence. That gap between years lived and years lived well is growing, and it is something clinicians see every day.

What are clinicians missing in today’s approach to care?

When we equate living longer with living better, care can become too focused on disease alone. We may not pay enough attention to one’s functional abilities, cognitive health, the ability to remain independent at home — the things patients value most.

Traditional measures like lab values or survival rates do not tell us whether someone can manage their daily activities, stay socially connected or continue living safely and independently. That is a critical gap in how we define success in medicine.

How can healthspan be measured in clinical practice?

Healthspan becomes actionable when we start measuring additional domains like physical function, cognitive health and independence in a consistent way.

We already have practical tools to do this — things like gait speed, grip strength, balance assessments, cognitive screening and patient-reported outcomes. These are validated measures that can be incorporated into routine care and give us a much clearer picture of how patients are actually doing.

When we also prioritize measuring these domains alongside thoughtful preventive care, we can track them over time and use them to guide clinical decisions in a way that aligns with what patients care about most.

How could a focus on healthspan change patient care?

A healthspan-focused approach shifts the goal of care toward helping patients stay independent, mobile and clear-minded for as long as possible.

It also changes how we talk to patients. Instead of focusing only on treating disease, we can frame care around how to preserve function, cognition and overall well-being so they are able to live well with dignity. That shift helps patients better understand the purpose behind recommendations and can improve engagement in their care.

What should patients and clinicians be thinking about differently?

We can start by changing the conversation, it begins with the words we use. Instead of asking only how to extend life, we can ask how to help patients live well, what are their goals and how can we help them reach those goals.

That includes preserving the ability to perform everyday activities, maintain social connections and continue living independently. Small changes in how we talk about care can help patients see that the goal is not just longevity, but living with quality, dignity and purpose.

What are the next steps for this research?

Our goal is to make healthspan something we can measure and track in everyday clinical practice. If we can do that, we can better align care with outcomes that truly impact patients’ lives.

The next steps include developing standardized metrics, integrating them across specialties and designing care models that prioritize function, independence and long-term quality of life.

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Scientists at the University of Oxford have found that frequent consumption of sugary drinks increases the risk of cardiovascular disease and stroke. The study’s findings were published in the journal BMC Medicine.

During the study, scientists assessed the dietary habits of more than 100,000 people. They examined the participants’ diets, with a particular focus on carbohydrates derived from 206 types of food and 32 types of beverages.

The study spanned nine years, during which nearly 10,000 participants were diagnosed with cardiovascular disease or experienced a stroke. After further analyses and statistical adjustments, the researchers concluded that total carbohydrate intake does not affect the risk of developing cardiovascular disease. However, consumption of free sugars from sources such as sugar-sweetened soft drinks, fruit juices, and milk-based beverages was associated with a higher risk of cardiovascular disease.

Specifically, every 5% increase in energy (calorie) intake from free sugars was associated with a 10% higher risk of stroke and a 6% higher risk of heart disease.

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The body’s primary objective is to maintain an internal temperature of around 37°C (98.6°F). This process is controlled by the hypothalamus, the brain’s thermoregulatory center. When the body begins to overheat, cooling mechanisms are activated, including increased sweating, changes in blood flow distribution, and a reduction in activities that generate additional heat.

In hot weather, blood is redirected toward the skin to help release heat into the environment. As a result, less blood is available for the gastrointestinal tract. Under normal circumstances, a significant portion of blood flow is directed to the digestive system after eating to support digestion and nutrient absorption. When blood flow to the digestive system is reduced, digestion slows down and appetite naturally declines.

Another factor is the energy cost of digestion itself. Digesting, absorbing, and transporting nutrients generate heat. During periods of overheating, the body attempts to minimize any process that could further increase its internal temperature, leading to a reduction in digestive activity.

Hormonal regulation also plays a role. The balance between hunger and satiety is influenced by hormones such as ghrelin, which stimulates appetite, and leptin, peptide YY (PYY), and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), which promote feelings of fullness. Research suggests that heat exposure may reduce ghrelin levels while enhancing satiety signals, although these effects are not entirely consistent and do not fully explain the decrease in appetite.

The close relationship between hunger and thirst is another important factor. Both sensations are regulated by the hypothalamus and can easily be confused. In high temperatures, the body loses more fluid through sweating, increasing the need for hydration. As a result, the brain prioritizes fluid replenishment over food intake, further suppressing appetite.

In addition, dehydration and overheating can slow stomach emptying, creating a sensation of fullness and heaviness after eating. This can reduce the desire to consume large meals.

In essence, the body shifts its priorities during hot weather: cooling becomes more important than digestion. The resulting decrease in appetite is not a malfunction but an adaptive physiological response.

Nevertheless, adequate nutrition remains important. During hot weather, lighter, water-rich foods such as fruits, vegetables, yogurt, and other dairy products are often better tolerated. Eating smaller meals throughout the day can help maintain energy levels without generating excessive heat.

Proper hydration and electrolyte replacement are also essential, particularly when sweating is excessive. Protein should not be eliminated from the diet, but it may be easier to consume in smaller portions throughout the day. Overall, lighter meals typical of a Mediterranean-style diet tend to align well with the body’s physiological needs during periods of extreme heat.

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Probiotics: Promoting digestion, benefiting health

Probiotics are living organisms, also known as microbes. They’re primarily bacteria and yeast whose main role is to aid digestion and improve overall health. Probiotics help strengthen the gut barrier, aid in the absorption of nutrients, and replace less beneficial or harmful microbes.

Research shows that probiotics can treat and even prevent conditions such as gastrointestinal (GI) tract infections, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), lactose intolerance, allergies, cystic fibrosis, urogenital infections, diarrhea, high cholesterol, eczema and certain cancers.

Probiotics also may support dental health by treating and preventing tooth decay, periodontal disease and bad breath.

In addition to aiding digestion, another essential role of probiotics is promoting a healthy immune system and preventing chronic diseases.

Some examples of probiotics include fermented foods, such as certain yogurts, many cheeses, pickled vegetables, apple cider vinegar, fermented teas and sauerkraut. Probiotic supplements also are available in pill or powder form.

Prebiotics: Feeding probiotics

Prebiotics are the food for probiotics. They help feed the probiotics through fermentation and metabolization, which are beneficial to the gut. These microorganisms contribute to a variety of processes, including cell energy, immune function, hormone regulation, anti-inflammatory responses and bowel management.

Research indicates that high prebiotic consumption may enhance our immune system, help regulate blood sugar levels, reduce the risk of colorectal cancer and increase calcium absorption. When good bacteria (probiotics) are fed an abundance of healthful food (prebiotics), our bodies will be healthier.

Prebiotics are found in foods that contain:

• Dietary fibers, which the body doesn’t fully digest.
• Resistant starches, which are a form of carbohydrate that isn’t digested in the small intestine. Instead, it ferments in the large intestine.

The most common prebiotics are inulin, oligosaccharides and pectin, which are found in fibrous foods. Foods containing prebiotics include most fruits and vegetables — especially green bananas, asparagus and onions — as well as garlic, nuts, seeds, oats, barley, potatoes, and legumes such as soybeans, dried beans, peas and lentils.

Adding probiotics and prebiotics to your diet

Food composition changes with cooking, so to get the most benefit from prebiotics and probiotics, it’s important to pay attention to cooking methods. For example, boiling potatoes is better than baking them. When potatoes are boiled and then chilled, they develop a white starchy film, which is the most beneficial part. Serving beans and legumes hot increases their starch content, which is good for your gut.

Eating most fruits and vegetables while they are fresh and raw will provide healthful prebiotics.

Researchers suggest gradually introducing these foods into your diet. Adding a lot of new foods containing prebiotics and probiotics may produce gas, cause bloating and lead to gut discomfort.

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The study, published in the journal Cell Reports Medicine, was led by Dr. Arshad Ayyaz from the Department of Biological Sciences and the Arnie Charbonneau Cancer Institute.

According to the researchers, immunotherapy—which trains a patient’s immune system to recognize and destroy cancer cells—has shown remarkable success in several types of cancer. However, in colorectal cancer, it is effective in only about 15% of cases.

The team compared the genetic characteristics of tumors that respond to treatment with those that remain resistant and identified a previously unknown mechanism of immune evasion.

In treatment-resistant tumors, the scientists discovered a protein that essentially misleads the immune system, preventing it from recognizing the cancer. The researchers describe this mechanism as a form of tumor “camouflage.”

“We asked ourselves: what would happen if we stopped the production of this protein?” Ayyaz explained.

Using genetically engineered cancer cells, the researchers switched off the gene responsible for producing the protein. Once the gene was disabled, tumor cells became detectable by the immune system.

When combined with immunotherapy in mouse models, the approach led to complete tumor elimination, achieving a 100% response rate.

“At first, I could hardly believe it. One gene turned off—and the result was completely clear,” the researcher said.

Even without additional immunotherapy, tumors shrank because they lost their ability to hide from the body’s natural immune defenses.

The authors emphasize that the findings are still at the preclinical stage, and it may take years before the strategy reaches clinical practice. Nevertheless, the approach could potentially be applicable to other solid tumors as well, including pancreatic and lung cancers.

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Dietary fiber refers to the parts of plant-based foods that your body can’t digest or break down. Unlike proteins, fats, or simple carbohydrates, fiber passes through the digestive system largely intact. Because your body can’t digest it, fiber becomes an important fuel source for the trillions of microbes that live in your gut.

As food moves through the digestive tract, nutrients your body can absorb are taken up earlier in the process. What remains — much of which is fiber — travels to the colon, where gut bacteria use it for energy.

Dietary fiber is often associated with digestion, but its role in the body goes far beyond keeping you regular. Fiber plays an important part in gut, heart, immune and metabolic health. Research shows that adequate fiber intake helps:

• Lower cholesterol levels and reduce blood pressure.
• Improve blood sugar control, aiding in the prevention and management of type 2 diabetes.
• Decrease the risk of colorectal cancer, stroke and chronic inflammation.
• Manage a healthy weight.
• Regulate immune responses.
• Maintain a healthy and diverse gut microbiome, which supports many aspects of overall health.

Fiber is often described as soluble or insoluble, based on whether it dissolves in water or not. However, this distinction is less important for overall health than how fiber functions in the body. A more meaningful way to think about fiber is whether it’s fermentable or nonfermentable. Here’s what this means:

• Fermentable fiber can be broken down by gut microbes and used as fuel. This process produces beneficial compounds, such as short-chain fatty acids.
• Nonfermentable fiber isn’t readily used by microbes and mainly adds bulk to your stool, which helps support regular bowel movements.

While you may hear about the benefits of taking supplements to add fiber to your diet, but fiber is best obtained from food rather than supplements. That’s because many whole foods contain a mix of different fibers, which is especially beneficial for gut health. Fiber-rich foods include:

• Fruits, such as berries, pears and apples.
• Vegetables, like broccoli, Brussels sprouts and leafy greens.
• Legumes, including lentils, chickpeas and beans.
• Nuts and seeds, such as almonds, chia seeds and flax seeds.
• Whole grains, including whole-wheat bread, oats and wheat bran.

It’s important to eat a variety of these foods. The more different types of fiber-rich foods you eat, the more different types of fiber you’ll get, which is optimal for your health. Making small, sustainable changes, such as choosing whole-grain bread instead of white bread or swapping chips for nuts or fruit, can add up over time.

Most adults who are in good health should aim for 30 to 40 grams of fiber per day. However, your fiber needs can vary by age and general health. For example, older adults may need to balance fiber intake with adequate calories and protein.

As you increase your fiber intake, you may experience some abdominal discomfort, bloating and gas. To prevent or lessen these symptoms, gradually add more fiber to your diet rather than increasing your intake all at once. A helpful approach is to:

• Increase fiber intake by about 3 grams per week. This can be as easy as adding just 1/2 cup peas, squash or cauliflower; 1 cup carrots; 1 medium sweet potato; 1 cup brown rice; 3 tablespoons of shredded coconut; or 2 tablespoons of sesame seeds.
• Maintain that level for seven to 10 days before increasing again.
• Drink plenty of water, aiming for 80 ounces a day.

Slowly increasing your fiber intake allows your digestive system and gut microbes time to adapt, and any symptoms will improve after a short while.

Fiber is an essential part of a healthy diet. By eating a variety of plant-based foods, increasing fiber intake gradually and staying well hydrated, you can support gut health and overall well-being while making fiber goals more achievable and sustainable.

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Dr. Megha Tollefson, a Mayo Clinic pediatric dermatologist, offers tips for keeping babies safe outdoors.

“Sunburns can be very painful,” explains Dr. Tollefson. They can be a setup for infection if they’re fairly severe.”

While sunburns are thought to be short-term concerns, there are also long-term risks to sun exposure.

“The more UV exposure a child gets — especially the younger in life that it starts — and the more sunburns they have, the higher their risk for skin cancer later in life,” says Dr. Tollefson.

Sun protection in the first 20 years of life is the most crucial for protecting against long-term skin cancer risk.

For infants, it’s best to avoid peak sun hours from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m. If that’s not possible, cover the baby with shade or long-sleeved clothing and a hat.

Dr. Tollefson also recommends using sunscreen on areas of exposed skin.

“We would recommend that, at that age, parents use the sunscreens that have physical blockers rather than chemical blockers because they’re better for sensitive skin,” she says.

Look for these ingredients when selecting a sunscreen for baby:

• Titanium dioxide
• Zinc oxide

Remember to reapply sunscreen every two hours or right after swimming or sweating.

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A tan is not a sign of health; it’s evidence of skin injury. There’s no safe way to tan in the sun or with indoor tanning. Fortunately, daily habits can protect your skin and reduce your risk of skin cancer.

Use sunscreen consistently. Choose a broad-spectrum sunscreen that protects against both UVB and UVA rays with an SPF of at least 30. Be aware of the expiration date and replace your sunscreen regularly. Keep it out of the heat and direct sunlight, which can degrade its effectiveness.

Spray sunscreens are typically easier to apply to hairy skin. Makeup also can contain sun-protective ingredients, but it should meet the same minimum standard of a broad-spectrum sunscreen and an SPF of at least 30. Sunscreens may contain organic or inorganic ingredients, or a combination of both.

Inorganic (mineral) sunscreens contain minerals such as titanium dioxide and zinc oxide and provide excellent, broad-spectrum protection. These ingredients tend to be thicker and may leave a whitish residue on your skin.

Organic (chemical) sunscreen filters are more common and tend to be lighter, easier to spread and less visible on the skin, but they may not have as much UVA protection as mineral options.

The Food and Drug Administration recently announced its proposal to add a new organic sunscreen ingredient, bemotrizinol (BEMT), to its approved list for use in the U.S. BEMT provides protection against both UVA and UVB, and it has low levels of absorption through the skin into the body.

Apply sunscreen whenever you’re outdoors — even on cloudy days, when up to 80% of harmful rays penetrate the clouds. When applying sunscreen:

• Don’t forget places like the tops of your ears and feet, the back of your neck, and areas where a beard might not be as thick.
• Reapply sunscreen every two hours.
• Remember to reapply more often with water exposure or sweating because this reduces how long the sunscreen remains effective. Water-resistant sunscreen provides protection for about 40 to 80 minutes.
• Apply more sunscreen than you think. Most people apply only a quarter to half of the amount needed to reach the advertised SPF on the product label. A simple strategy is to apply a full layer, then repeat to create a “double coat” to ensure adequate coverage.

Wear photoprotective clothing. Long-sleeved shirts, pants, wide-brimmed hats and sunglasses provide consistent protection without the need for reapplying sunscreen. Not all clothing blocks the same amount of UV rays. Test it by holding it up to the light. If you can see the light through the clothing, you’ll know that UV rays can pass through, too.

Many brands now offer lightweight, breathable clothing with built-in ultraviolet protection rated with an ultraviolet protection factor (UPF). For water activities, rash guards offer convenient, reliable sun protection. Tops are available in short- and long-sleeved styles, with or without hoods.

Avoid intentional tanning. Indoor tanning significantly increases the risk of cancer. Tanning beds emit intense UV radiation and can increase melanoma risk by 20% with just one session. Using indoor tanning before age 35 can increase melanoma risk by 75%. Dermatologists see patients in their 30s with multiple skin cancers and advanced sun damage after extensive tanning bed use in their teens and 20s.

If you want a bronzed glow without the risk of UV rays, sunless tanning products are a safe alternative. Spray tans and lotions containing dihydroxyacetone can create the appearance of tanned skin without UV exposure.

Be mindful of peak sun hours. If you love being outdoors, whether it’s hanging at the beach, working in the garden, hiking on a fall day or skiing down a mountain, it’s wise to use a combination of sun-protective behaviors, including sunscreen, photoprotective clothing and seeking shade when possible. Consistent sun-protective behaviors will substantially reduce your risk of skin cancer while allowing you to enjoy time outdoors safely.

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